MONUMENT
MATERIALS
Granite
Marble
Sandstone
Slate
White
Bronze - ZincMONUMENT
TYPES
Tablets
& Headstones
Markers
Ledger
Tree
Stumps
Obelisks,
pedestals, & columns
Columns
Pedestal
monument
Eclectic
monument
CrossesPHYSICAL
STRUCTURES
Sarcophagus
MausoleumMONUMENT MATERIALS
Granite
Most Victorians preferred granite as the material of choice for
a cemetery monument. It was particularly hard and durable. And it could
be obtained in a wide variety of colors and crystalline textures to suit
individual tastes.
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Marble
Marble was an important second choice as a cemetery monument material
after granite. Marble also comes in a wide range of quality, some are proving
to be quite permanent, some not. Acid rain has caused severe damage to
the poorer grades of marble. Many of the sculptures atop monuments are
carved in marble.
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White Bronze - Zinc
There are many monuments in Mt. Hope that appear to be made of
a bluish gray stone. These monuments are actually made of molded metal!
The material was called White Bronze to make it more appealing to customers,
but it is actually pure zinc. Left exposed to the elements the monuments
rapidly form a tough and very durable skin of zinc carbonate that protects
the underlying metal. The zinc carbonate is what gives the monuments their
characteristic bluish gray color. The monuments were erected in cemeteries
across the entire United States (including Hawaii) and Canada.
These monuments were ordered from a sales agent with a catalog, and were very inexpensive. The price range for these monuments was from about $6 for a single cast tablet, to as much as $5,000. The White Bronze markers copyied the same shapes and styles as marble and granite monuments, but the stone monument dealers seldom sold the metal monuments. The back of the catalog featured an ad asking people to become sales agents with "No capital investment needed."
The catalogs listed the various shapes, symbols, sculptures, and panels that could be used. The customer would decide on the overall design he wanted, and then pick out the various symbols, and other decorative elements required. Price was based on the over all monument, not the number of images. Customers often ordered several images for each side. The individual pieces were then molded in zinc, and then simply bolted together with screws with decorated heads. Any text required was easily molded in the same fashion. When other family members died at a later date, old decorative panels could be easily removed and replaced with new castings with the updated information.
M.A. Richardson and C.J. Willard perfected the method of casting in 1873, but they did not have the capital that was required for full scale manufacturing, so they sold out to W.W. Evans. Evans also failed to get anything started, and sold the process to the Wilson, Parsons & Company of Bridgeport Connecticut in 1874.
The Monumental Bronze Company made the monuments from untill 1914 when the he government took over the plant for the manufacturing of munitions during World War I. In the post war years the demand for the monuments had faded, so the company turned to making castings for automobiles and radios until it closed in 1939.
Monumental Bronze opened it's first subsidiary in Detroit in 1881. Detroit Bronze operated until 1885. Two more subsidiaries opened in 1886. American Bronze operated in Chicago for twenty-three years, until it closed in 1909. Western White Bronze Company in Des Moines operated for twenty-two years, and closed in 1908. These subsidiaries did not do castings, they were only involved in the final assembly of the pieces . All the original casting took place in Bridgeport Connecticut.
It possiable to find dates of death from both before and after Monumental Bronze made the monuments. The company would produce panels for family members who had died before the monument was ordered, and they continued to make individual panels after they stopped production of complete monuments in 1914.
Wax models were created by an artist, who worked at the plant. His models were then used to create plaster molds for creating the individual pieces. The company used a patented process for fusing the larger pieces together. Zinc was heated to temperatures way above it's melting point, then poured into the joints between individual pieces. This caused the adjoining surfaces to melt together, welding them into a single unit, a much stronger process than soldering.
The company used a patented process for fusing the larger pieces together. Zinc was heated to temperatures way above it's melting point, then poured into the joints between individual pieces. This caused the adjoining surfaces to melt together, welding them into a single unit, a much stronger process than soldering.
The zinc carbonate that gives the monuments their characteristic bluish gray color also creates a hard protective skin so that the castings are still extremely sharp and clear. However, zinc has two unfortunate characteristics. It is quite brittle and may break if hit by a falling branch, and over many years it's unsupported weight will creep and sag, causing some of the larger monuments to bow or crack. Another problem, but one that affects all cemetery monuments, is poor foundations. Crumbling bases, and shifting soil has caused many monuments to lean.
The general rarity of these monuments is due to the fact that they
were only produced for 40 years. This short production was caused by the
fact that the metal monuments were never accepted by the public. Some cemeteries
passed regulations that prohibited the use of metal markers, but it was
mostly because people did not fully accept the claims that these monuments
were superior to stone. Interesting enough time has shown that these inexpensive
zinc monuments have remained in excellent condition for over a century,
with details as fresh and cripp as the day they were cast.
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Sandstone
Another uncommon material for cemetery monuments is sandstone.
The sandstone used in Mt. Hope Cemetery is the Medina Sandstone, named
for the small town about halfway between Rochester and Niagara Falls. The
red, or Grimsby Sandstone, is the variant of the Medina used. A very popular
building material. It was used on many buildings in downtown Rochester,
and for curbing throughout the city. Although harder than some of the local
limestones, it is easier to work with. Rubbing your fingers on it's surface
gives a gritty feeling, as the stone breaks back down into sand.
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Very susceptiabe to weathering, it proved to be a poor chouce for
monuments. The erosion can easily be seen on Lewis Henry Morgan's tomb.
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Slate
There are very few slate monuments in Mount Hope. Slate monuments
tend to flake and split destroying their carved inscriptions. The Victorians
noted this and changed to the more durable granite.
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Fletcher Steele, a Pittsford resident, was a world famous landscape
architect. He designed the four classic shouldered tablet stones that mark
the graves of the members of his family. He chose a black slate of exceptionally
high quality and created four monuments that are typical of the slate headstones
found in his native New England graveyards.
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MONUMENT TYPES
Tablets & Headstones
This type is the most popular and frequently encountered grave
memorial found in old cemeteries. A variety of materials have been used
for this type of memorial, ranging from wood to stone. While there are
many shapes and sizes of tablets and headstones, most exhibit a few common
features. First, most are not enormous monuments. They tend to be 80 to
100 centimeters in height and vary in thickness from 8 to 20 centimeters.
The headstone may be placed by itself in the ground or may be set on a
base or on top of another grave structure such as a ground ledger. The
term "headstone" derives from the position of the stone above the interred
corpse’s head. Once it was common to use a headstone and a smaller stone
a short distance away called the footstone. Footstones were usually made
of the same material as the headstone but were much smaller. The footstone
was usually inscribed with the initials of the deceased.
- Simple tablet
Tends to be rectangular and the same thickness throughout; no curves, angles or tapering features. Faces may be polished or plain. Simple lines of construction.
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Domed tablet
Tends to have more angles and may be the same thickness throughout
or thicker at the base. Tapers to a domed top having a convex shape or
sloping angles.
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Shouldered tablet
Tends to have far more intricate angles and cuts on the top portion
of the headstone. There is much variation in this type of tablet.
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Gothic tablet
Similar to the domed tablet, but the angles along the top of the
headstone and the shoulders are steeper. Same styling as the Gothic arches
popular in European churches.
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Rustic tablet/headstone
Tends to be thicker and more robust than other designs. It is common
to see these memorials with a pattern that looks almost like a stone wall.
The main inscription face is usually polished and the polished section
may be in the shape of a large arrow pointing upward (direct line to heaven).
The hymn "Rock of Ages" is said to have inspired the popularity of rustic
tablets in the 1920s and 1930s.
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Markers
This type of grave memorial is also common in old cemeteries, and
they can be found set into a base, on a ground ledger or just by themselves.
Most markers tend to be thicker than headstones/tablets and lower to the
ground. The one exception is the plaque, which is quite thin. Where tablets/headstones
are made of almost any material, markers tend to be made from stone, cement
or bronze. There are great variations in the sizes of markers, from tiny
ones on children’s graves to huge monumental ones on prominent family grave
sites.
Because markers are lower to the ground, much bulkier and constructed
of more
durable material, little damage has occurred to them over the years.
The following are some of the most common types of markers:
- Ledger
Groung Ledgers are rectangular in shape, taking the dimensions of the grave itself. They are usually made of granite, sandstone or marble. They are bulkier and constructed low to the ground. All of these factors contribute to the long life expendancy of these markers.
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Simple block
Rectangular block that tends to be quite thick. Usually made of
marble or granite.
Flat marker
Tends to be thinner than other markers and lies flat along the
ground. May be set into a base or just by itself. Usually these markers
have only enough room for a very simple inscription such as name, years
of birth and death and a three- or four-word epitaph.
Plaque
Tends to be very thin and made of either bronze or brass. Can also
be found on a slanting, raised foundation. Bronze is cast and shows very
little deterioration over time. Lettering is usually in relief. Brass develops
a patina with its reaction to the environment and leaves a green-coloured
residue when in contact with water. Lettering is usually incised
Slant-faced marker
Comes in a variety of sizes and styles. Main characteristic is
the slant of the inscription face, usually at a 40 to 45 degree angle,
allowing the inscription to face a certain direction (usually east). This
slant in the stone’s face allows for a greater surface area for inscriptions.
Most often these markers are made of granite, marble or cement.
Scroll-faced marker
Tends to lie flat and is fashioned in the shape of a scroll, seen
easily from the sides of the marker. The inscription is always placed on
the scroll. The symbolic reference is to "divine law." Most scroll-faced
markers are made of granite but there are some examples in marble.
Open-book marker
Tends to lie flat and take on the dimensions of an open book (religious
symbolism referring to the Bible or the word of God). This type of marker
was very popular in the 1920s and 1930s. Almost all open-book markers are
made of granite or marble. Very common on husband and wife burials with
the husband’s inscription on the left, as in the marriage ceremony.
Vertical-face marker with slant-top
A flat vertical face with inscription on one side and the top of
the marker has a sloping cut usually at a 45-degree angle. Generally no
inscription is placed on the top. Although these stones are not common
in larger city cemeteries, they do exist in moderate numbers in small older
cemeteries in rural areas. This type of marker is usually made of white
marble or granite.
Tree-Stump Tombstones
Tree-stump tombstones depict a lifelike tree and is traditionally
carved out of limestone or marble. This tombstone first appeared in the
1870's and was popular for approximately sixty years. Seen in Europe and
the United States, these carvings qualify as folk art. The tree-stump design
shows a living tree that has been cut down, suggesting that the individual
was also cut down in the prime of life. Branches are also seen to be cut-off
close to the stump, symbolising other family members who have died before
their time. In some instances the initials of these family members appear
to be carved into these cut-off limbs.
Inscriptions are cut into the "wood" where the bark has been cut
away, or more often, a scroll appears to nailed to the stump, or suspended
from a rope hanger. Various flowers and ivy are often carved as offerings
at the base, or growing around the stump. An assortment of items are often
seen on top of the stump, ranging from a cross, bible, anchor, flowers,
or even the name and dates for the individual buried.
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The obelisk is, to quote McDowell and Meyer in The Revival Styles in American Memorial Art, one of the "most pervasive of all the revival forms" of cemetery art. There is hardly a cemetery founded in the 1840s and 50s without some form of Egyptian influence in the public buildings, gates, and tomb art. Napoleon's 1798-99 Egyptian campaigns, the discoveries at the tombs of the Pharaohs, and our new Republic's need to borrow the best of the ancient cultures (Greek revival, classic revival, the prominence of classical studies and dress, etc.) led to a resurgence of interest in the ancient Egyptian culture. Obelisks were considered to be tasteful, with pure uplifting lines, associated with ancient greatness, patriotic, able to be used in relatively small spaces, and, perhaps most importantly, obelisks were less costly than large and elaborate sculpted monuments.
Many of the largest, and most spectacular monuments fall into this category. All obelisks and columns borrow heavily from Egyptian, Greek and Roman architectural styles. The original obelisk was square in section, tapering up to a pyramidal capital. During the 1800s, stonemasons used a variety of obelisk types, some with straight shafts and different tops from blunt (truncated Roman influence) to cross-vaulted on the top. Obelisks and columns have three distinct sections: the base (bottom support), the shaft (center column piece) and the capital (the top structure).
The one great advantage of obelisks, pilaster columns and pedestals is the available space for inscriptions. Where headstones and markers only have one inscription face, obelisks, columns and pedestals provide at least four inscription faces. These types of monuments are usually found on family burials or those of people of high social status. Because obelisks, columns and pedestals are higher, they also tend to stand out more in the cemetery and are easily located.
The following are some subtypes in this type:
- Standard obelisk
Shaped like a finger or ray from the sun. Egyptian in origin to represent "Ra" the giver of all life. Usually made of granite, sandstone or marble. One variation is the white bronze obelisk made of cast zinc that appeared in the late 1800s, but had disappeared by the 1920s.
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Truncated or blunt obelisk
Similar shape to the standard obelisk but with a rounded capital
(top). Roman in origin, it appears to be a modification of the Egyptian
obelisk. Usually made of sandstone, marble or granite.
Vaulted obelisks
Shaft is similar to the other obelisk styles but the capital (top)
is distinctive. The most common variation is the cross-vaulted obelisk.
The cross-vaulted obelisk’s capital peaks cross over, which gives a "+"
or cross-vaulted pattern. On some of these vaulted obelisk styles, the
capital is designed to look like the vaulted ceilings in churches.
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Columns
Columns come in a variety of shapes and sizes similar to obelisks.
- Gateway/bi-columnar monument
Usually appears as two columns supporting an arch. The columns can be Egyptian, Greek or Roman in styling. The columns and arch represent a gateway or entrance or what is referred to as "The portal to eternity." Gateway columns are commonly found where the husband and wife are buried side by side. This monument type is also very common on Masonic graves. Usually gateway columns are free-standing, but can be found on top of ground ledgers. They also appear in a great variety of sizes and usually are made of either granite or marble.
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Broken column
Usually in the classical Greek style or with a tapering shaft.
Originated in England about 1815. Denotes the burial spot of a child or
young person whose life was cut short.
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Classical Greek column
Tends to have a straight shaft with flutes; shaft can taper slightly
or be straight. Column may have an urn at the top. Usually made of marble
or gray granite.
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Standard column
Tends to have a rounded shaft that does not taper and has no flutes,
but a smooth surface running up to the capital, usually with an urn on
top. This type of column is usually made of marble, sandstone or granite.
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Pilaster columns
Pilaster columns are a type of column, but are a combination of
the obelisk and the column monument. The pilaster column has a square or
rectangular shaft and is either flat topped or topped with an urn. The
term "pilaster" can also be used to describe a support column protruding
from a wall. The terminology is confusing because "pilasters" have been
used both in descriptions of single free-standing columns and of eclectic
monuments.
Romans appear to have first used this type of column, which was elaborately decorated with acanthus and garlands. The most famous historical pilaster is the "Pilaster from the Severan Basilica" in Italy, which is a rectangular column dating from the 3rd century A.D. and is elaborately carved out of marble. Because of the confusion, it is better to refer to pilasters as either "pilaster columns" (free-standing) or "pilasters" (eclectic memorials). Cemetery pilaster columns tend to be smaller than most other column memorials.
Sometimes pilaster columns are referred to as pedestals. Pedestal
monuments are generally much thicker in the shaft and larger.
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Stele
Greek, small column or pillar terminating in a cresting ornament
and used as a monument.
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Pedestal monument
Tends to be large, have four faces for inscriptions and flat vertical
sides (tapering or straight) topped either with a flat capital or pediment
(triangular roof-like structure). There may also be an urn above the pediment
or the capital. The styling is adapted from architectural styles found
in ancient Pompeii and usually is enriched with inscriptions, motifs and
ornamental styling on four faces. Most often, these monuments are large
and made of either granite or marble.
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Eclectic monument
Tends to be large and incorporate two or three styles in one structure.
This type of monument is commonly a large flat screen (for inscriptions)
topped by either support pilasters or round or standard columns supporting
a pediment capital. These monuments are generally massive and made of granite.
Crosses
The cross can take many forms and the symbolic meanings and history
of each type is very complex and elaborate. Many types of crosses are used
as cemetery monuments, but the four most often encountered as grave memorials
are:
- Latin cross
The Latin cross is common in Roman Catholic cemeteries or Catholic sections of cemeteries. Standard flat cross made of wood, granite, marble or granite. Very susceptible to damage because the cross bar or shoulders can be easily broken.
Calvary cross
This is a Latin cross mounted on a three-tiered base. The three-block
base stands for the Trinity or faith, hope and charity (Protestant) or
faith, hope and love (Roman Catholic). A Calvary cross can be made of any
material, ranging from wood to stone.
Celtic cross
The Celtic cross dates back to the Celtic cultures of England,
as early as the 5th century. Very elaborate decoration, highly ornate in
styling. The center of the cross has a circular design that represents
eternity. Almost always in granite or marble.
Rustic cross
This cross was a popular grave memorial in the 1920s and 1930s.
The rustic appearance takes a form almost resembling wood. Almost always
made of granite or marble, it may have a rough granite base.
PHYSICAL STRUCTURES
While the great majority of burials are below ground, there are also many grave structures designed for above-ground interments. These structures vary from a small vault or cell-type chamber to larger mausoleums.
The following are some of the most common structures for above-ground
interments:
- Sarcophagus
Structure where the body is interred above ground in either a single or double sarcophagus made of stone; sometimes referred to as "bench tombs" or "grave sheds." This type of grave memorial was common in England but was very easily broken into. Today most of these old structures have been heavily vandalized. Larger cemeteries still use these structures but they are no longer very popular.
The word comes to us from Latin and Greek, having been derived in Greek from sarx, “flesh,” and phagein, “to eat.” The Greek word sarkophagos meant “eating flesh,” and in the phrase lithos (“stone”) sarkophagos it denoted a limestone that was thought to decompose the flesh of corpses placed in it. Used by itself as a noun the Greek term came to mean “coffin.” This Latin word was borrowed
into English, first being recorded in 1601 with reference to the flesh-consuming stone and then in 1705 with reference to a stone coffin.
The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000.
Mausoleum
An above-ground burial structure that can be entered like a building.
These structures are almost always made of stone and are expensive to construct.
Individual burial cells or chambers in a mausoleum are referred to as loculi
(from the Latin word loculus, meaning small compartment). Mausoleums
usually contain family members and most often have four or more chambers.
Mausoleums may contain both bodies and cremated remains. In urban cemeteries,
mausoleums are sometimes large buildings containing hundreds of loculi.
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